Cities and the Environment (CATE)

Green Jobs for Ex-Offenders: The Urban Resource Initiative's “GreenSkills” Program

Dylan Walsh — Tue, 11 Jun 2013 09:45:40 PDT

In the fall of 2009, New Haven Mayor John Destefano vowed to plant 10,000 new trees across the city, a goal that will require the close cooperation of the Urban Resources Initiative (URI) for successful completion. Not long after, the Pew Center on the States released a report that found 43.3 percent of people released from prison in 2004 were reincarcerated within three years.

URI, connecting these two challenging figures, is working with the city to achieve its tree-planting goal through the development of a green jobs program to help ex-offenders transitioning from incarceration to gainful employment. This group is chronically overlooked on the job market, with unemployment rates topping 50 percent in some cases. Unemployment is considered one of the major drivers of recidivism. The green jobs program was designed to simultaneously address the costly urban problems of recidivism and sparse forest resources.

Planting the Spaces in Between: New York Restoration Project’s Tree Giveaway Program

Claire Turner et al. — Tue, 11 Jun 2013 09:45:37 PDT

Through the tree giveaway program, NYRP provides organizations between 100 and 300 trees and staff to support the distribution of trees to NYC residents for planting on private property. The giveaway events take place throughout NYC’s five boroughs every weekend during the spring and fall planting seasons. Tree giveaways set the stage for discussions about urban soil conditions, precautions to take when planting, and ecological issues confronting the city. From Allegheny Serviceberry to Little Leaf Linden and everything in between, these trees provide a beneficial contrast to the gray infrastructure of the city. These benefits include providing shade, wildlife habitat, ecological biodiversity, storm water retention, food production, and natural beauty.

My Tree NYC: Beautiful Tree Bed Contest – An Interactive Way to Celebrate Tree Care

Sarah Tobing — Tue, 11 Jun 2013 09:45:26 PDT

Over 625,000 trees line New York City’s streets, providing a myriad of benefits including carbon sequestration, aesthetic value, and stormwater capture (Nowak et al. 2007). In addition, trees transform the cold concrete of a typical NYC neighborhood into a lush and inviting living space. Street tree care has been shown to increase street tree survivability (Lu, J. et al. 2010). Stewardship Corps is a program developed by MillionTreesNYC in order to engage citizens in tree care; participants can also formally adopt trees and track the volunteer hours on an interactive map on the MillionTreesNYC website. Over 5,000 street trees have been formally adopted through MillionTreesNYC. However, a greater number of people have informally adopted street trees through watering in the summer, gardening in tree beds, and installing tree guards. The enthusiasm and creativity of these citizens should be recognized. The goal of this project was to increase the visibility of tree care and tree bed beautification while creating tree stewards in a fun new way and to provide a portfolio of tree bed plantings and tree guard designs.

TreeKIT: Measuring, Mapping, and Collaboratively Managing Urban Forests

Philip Silva et al. — Tue, 11 Jun 2013 09:45:24 PDT

As cities across the United States expand their stock of street trees to address a range of environmental sustainability goals, municipal foresters are increasingly turning to volunteers to supplement their tree care efforts. TreeKIT is a small non-profit organization that helps city dwellers collaboratively measure, map, and manage urban forests. Using TreeKIT’s mapping methods, volunteers are able to create spatially accurate inventories of street trees. In the process, volunteers learn to identify street trees and develop an effective appreciation for their local urban forest. The following article describes the TreeKIT mapping methods and ongoing efforts to scale these techniques for large, synchronous street tree census initiatives.

UEC Urban Forestry Practitioners Share All!

Michael Leff — Tue, 11 Jun 2013 09:45:22 PDT

Urban forestry is one important way of connecting cities to the environment, so it’s appropriate that the Urban Ecology Collaborative’s Urban Forestry workgroup should be featured in this Special Issue of Cities and the Environment.

Characterization of Urban Agricultural Practices and Gardeners’ Perceptions in Bronx Community Gardens, New York City.

Michelle Melissa Althaus Ottmann et al. — Mon, 10 Dec 2012 10:01:34 PST

This study investigates urban agricultural practices in the community gardens in the Bronx, New York City, United States, due to their historical role of helping bring peace and a sense of community to areas that suffered from violence and social injustice. Through semi-structured interviews with the gardeners, visits to observe the gardens, and a spatial analysis of community socio-demographic characteristics using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), we characterize the community gardens visited, and survey the gardeners’ perceptions regarding the benefits and challenges that are involved in the activity. The GISc analysis results showed that there is a much higher rate of poverty in block group populations living within a quarter mile of the community gardens and there is also a significantly higher Hispanic population in block groups living close to the gardens than those further away. The community gardens visited can be characterized as places where the activity of growing plants is a way to socialize within the community, a source of fresh vegetables and fruits, a way to beautify the neighborhood, and a place for education. Regarding the gardeners’ perceptions, it was unanimous that in the garden they enjoy being together with family and community, appreciating nature, and receiving therapeutic benefits that gardening brings. However, some have spoken about their fears of losing the gardens, since they are still not protected by the City, and are prone to take-over by developers.

Zoned Out: The Potential of Urban Agriculture Planning to Turn Against its Roots

Carolin Mees et al. — Fri, 28 Sep 2012 10:01:07 PDT

The community gardening movement in urban areas across the United States has been rapidly expanding and changing since its beginnings over 30 years ago. Municipal and not-for-profit community gardening support programs like New York City’s GreenThumb, started in the late 1970s at a time when American urban areas were largely financially bankrupt. In reaction, residents created community gardens on derelict land that had been abandoned by the government and private owners responsible for its maintenance. GreenThumb and other community gardening programs were created and funded by local [nfr1] governments to support and to regulate the growing community garden movement. Today these programs continue to provide funding, material, and technical support to gardeners nationwide. They have continued in spite of threats to the community garden movement occasioned by the real estate boom in the 1990s in New York and other cities, and in contrast to the perception in some gentrifying cities and neighborhoods that community gardening is an outdated solution that is no longer relevant. Numerous recent studies have demonstrated the benefits of community gardening and the gardeners themselves have continued to display conviction in their largely voluntary efforts. Favorable municipal attitudes towards community gardening programs in recent years are reflected in zoning and other government ordinances intended to support community gardening, now often defined as “urban agriculture”.

In this paper we will discuss why the land use form “community garden” performs a specific function in the urban space and is thus to be treated differently from other urban agriculture projects. The analysis is based on a practitioners’ analysis and conducted via the example of the development of community gardens and urban agriculture in New York City with a focus on publicly owned urban open space use.

The Impact of an Extended Outdoor Residential Workshop on Urban Students’ Learning and Appreciation of Biodiversity

Yael Wyner et al. — Mon, 10 Sep 2012 13:46:27 PDT

Courses that focus on local flora and fauna are no longer included in biology curricula; therefore most K-12 teachers lack the expertise to teach their students about local biodiversity. When teachers are unable to recognize the plants and animals in their own surroundings, threats to the environment and biodiversity will inevitably remain abstractions to students. In the summer of 2011, a five-day plant and insect biodiversity workshop engaging thirteen pre-service and in-service urban public school teachers and five undergraduate biology teaching assistants was held at a forest field station outside of New York City. The goals were to develop an appreciation of local plant and insect diversity amongst practicing and pre-service teachers, and prepare them to use outdoor experiences to teach urban students. Results from pre- and post-tests and surveys indicate that teachers made significant gains in their understanding of biodiversity, with the largest gains made on plant identification skills. Post-surveys, distributed six months following workshop completion, indicate that half of the in-service teachers used these resources in their classrooms. Responses also highlighted important intangible benefits of the workshop, and indicated that some participants used their new plant identification skills to identify or observe the street trees they pass as part of their daily routine.

Past Forward: Roots and Recovery in the American City

Justin G. Moore — Mon, 10 Sep 2012 10:41:19 PDT

Today’s focus on the development of "sustainable” communities as being critical to the recovery of the economy and the challenge of maintaining our high standard of living raises important questions: What is sustainable environmentally, economically, and socially? Who will be a part of the future economy and how will they participate? Or, in general, what do we mean by progress? Cities are resilient places of memory, and along with nature, can be our greatest teachers. Perhaps our cities’, and their inhabitants’, promise and progress for the future just may have something to do with their recovered past. In researching my own family history, I stumbled upon an online repository of post-war articles and reports about Flanner House, a social services organization that worked in Indianapolis dating back to the turn of the twentieth century. The documents included photographs, reports, and even building plans relevant to the organization’s work transforming a slum in the inner city into a community with garden plots and newly constructed homes. This story is compelling in that it narrates the historical decline and recovery cycles of the city, while depicting the struggles and triumphs of the urban fabric, and the people therein.

Food Stamps Grow Urban Gardens

Daniel Bowman Simon — Thu, 30 Aug 2012 13:52:39 PDT

Plants and seeds can be purchased with SNAP (formerly Food Stamps, renamed Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP in 2008,) but most current SNAP participants are unaware. Nearly four decades ago, in 1973, Alabama Senator James Allen championed an amendment to allow the purchase of food-producing plants and seeds with Food Stamps. The Senate passed the amendment after less than ten minutes of floor debate. However, in the ensuing decades, there has not been a focused national effort to make SNAP participants raise awareness of this choice that is available to SNAP participants, n or to connect SNAP participants to resources that make gardening a viable with their benefits viable.

As of May 2012, nearly than 46.5 million Americans, or more than 1 in 7, 79% of whom are in metropolitan households, depend on SNAP to put food on the table, with an average monthly benefit of $133 per person. Most Americans do not consume sufficient fruits and vegetables, and for SNAP participants, the “triple-A” challenges of access, affordability and awareness are particularly pronounced. Diets with insufficient fruit and vegetable intake can lead to increased incidence of preventable illnesses, such as diabetes and obesity. Those illnesses further increase the burdens of citizens living in poverty. Such burdens fall not only on poor individuals and their families but also on society at large, in the form of Medicare and Medicaid costs.

Gardening offers a unique opportunity to simultaneously address access, affordability, and awareness. Gardening can help considerably in providing a healthful diet for SNAP participants in urban areas, while at the same time improving the surrounding neighborhood atmosphere and the natural environment. There are many experiential education lessons to be learned in a garden, including acquiring skills that can be leveraged into new career opportunities.

This article will discuss the history of food stamps and gardening as well as current efforts to raise awareness and develop resources to facilitate gardening with SNAP benefits, particularly in urban areas. Because gardeners tend to be the best advocates for gardening, this article will also highlight the role that urban community gardens and community gardeners can play in cultivating awareness and providing support.

Introducing a Longitudinal Study of Community Gardeners and Gardens in New York City

Erika S. Svendsen et al. — Tue, 28 Aug 2012 15:25:15 PDT

For almost a decade, the NYC Department of Parks and Recreation GreenThumb program has collected data about hundreds of New York City community gardens citywide to understand how these gardens function. Building on a data set that includes surveys and interviews conducted periodically with garden representatives since 2003, GreenThumb and USDA Forest Service researchers have conducted a new round of community garden interviews examining membership, programming, partnerships, and motivations for gardening. This comprehensive study of the largest community gardening program in the United States aims to understand the evolving role of community gardens in New York City. The study asks: From 2003-2011, is gardeners’ motivation for creating and participating in community gardens persistent or changing? How do the use and social functions of community gardens evolve or remain the same? What sort of programs and community events are held in gardens? How has garden membership changed over time? Is membership increasing, decreasing, or staying the same? Who participates in gardening in neighborhoods with changing demographics? During the summer of 2011, structured interviews were conducted by phone with representatives from a sample of 102 community gardens for which survey data existed from 2003, 2007, and 2009. These research findings will help assess the ways in which New York City community gardens have evolved and can continue to grow in the future.

Evaluating Community Gardens as Habitat for an Urban Butterfly

Kevin C. Matteson et al. — Tue, 21 Aug 2012 12:21:41 PDT

Although many butterfly species persist in heavily developed landscapes, it is unclear what factors influence movements of butterflies among urban habitat patches. We used mark-recapture and translocation experiments to assess residency and movement of the highly successful urban butterfly, Pieris rapae, within and among community gardens of New York City. Although the majority of marked butterflies used gardens transiently, a small number remained for several days. Recruitment (via pupation and/or immigration) and residence time of P. rapae adults was higher in larger gardens and gardens with more flowers. Residence time, but not recruitment, was influenced by the amount of surrounding green space. When translocated outside of gardens, butterflies readily moved to a variety of other urban green spaces including street trees, street plantings and other small patches of vegetation. This study demonstrate the ability of P. rapae to move through heavily developed landscapes and to locate floral resources, factors which may contribute to this species success in urbanized landscapes.

Using Citizen Science to Quantify Community Garden Crop Yields

Mara Gittleman et al. — Tue, 21 Aug 2012 12:21:27 PDT

New York City is home to over 500 community gardens, over 80% of which host food production (GrowNYC 2010). This paper is a case study of Farming Concrete, an open, community-based study aimed to define community gardens in the context of the New York City food system and to educate local communities about developing and conducting meaningful research. The project employs citizen science methods in which the gardeners and researchers alike are involved in the design and implementation processes. This paper will outline the methods and challenges involved in conducting participatory urban agriculture research, as well as discuss findings regarding how much food was grown in NYC community gardens in 2010 and 2011.

Integrating Grey and Green Infrastructure to Improve the Health and Well-being of Urban Populations

Erika Svendsen et al. — Tue, 21 Aug 2012 12:21:12 PDT

One of the enduring lessons of cities is the essential relationship between grey infrastructure (e.g., streets and buildings) and green infrastructure (e.g., parks and open spaces). The design and management of natural resources to enhance human health and well-being may be traced back thousands of years to the earliest urban civilizations. From the irrigation projects of the Indus Valley and the aqueducts of the Roman Empire to integrated systems of landscaped urban parks and street trees in contemporary times, humans have sought to harness the capacity of nature to advance city life. This article presents a systems science framework that delineates critical relationships between grey and green elements of cities and human health and well-being by modeling the complex, dynamic problem of asthma in socioeconomically disadvantaged city neighborhoods. By understanding the underlying structure of urban spaces and the importance of social interactions, urban planners, public health officials, and community members may capitalize on opportunities to leverage resources to improve the health and well-being of urban populations and promote social justice and health equity.

Community Gardening Works! American Community Garden Association’s 32nd Annual Conference August 18-21, 2011, New York, NY

Nancy Falxa-Raymond et al. — Tue, 21 Aug 2012 12:20:51 PDT

Use of Anticoagulant Rodenticides in Single-Family Neighborhoods Along an Urban-Wildland Interface in California

Monica Bartos et al. — Fri, 03 Aug 2012 09:23:10 PDT

Urbanization poses many threats for many wildlife species. In addition to habitat loss and fragmentation, non-target wildlife species are vulnerable to poisoning by rodenticides, especially acutely toxic second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs). Although such poisonings are well documented for birds and mammals worldwide, the pathways by which these widely available compounds reach non-target wildlife have not been adequately studied, particularly in urban landscapes. Long-term studies of wild carnivores in and around Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, a national park north of Los Angeles, have documented >85% exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides among bobcats, coyotes, and mountain lions. To investigate potential mechanisms of transfer of chemicals from residential users of rodenticides to non-target wildlife in the Santa Monica Mountains in Los Angeles County, California, we distributed surveys to residents in two study areas on the north (San Fernando Valley) and south (Bel Air-Hollywood Hills) slopes of these mountains. We assessed knowledge of residents about the environmental effects of rodenticides, and for information about individual application of chemicals. We asked for the same information from pest control operators (PCOs) in both study areas. Forty residents completed the survey in the San Fernando Valley area, and 20 residents completed the survey in Bel Air-Hollywood Hills. Despite the small number of total responses, we documented a number of important findings. Homeowners (as opposed to gardeners or PCOs) were the primary applicators of rodenticides, predominantly SGARs, and awareness of the hazards of secondary poisoning to wildlife was not consistent. Some residents reported improperly applying rodenticides (e.g., exceeding prescribed distances from structures), and in one instance a respondent reported observing dead animals outside after placing poison inside a structure. Improper application of SGARs that ignores label guidelines occurs in neighborhoods along the urban–wildland interface, thereby providing a transmission pathway for chemical rodenticides to reach native wildlife. Moreover, the responses suggest that even on-label use (e.g. placing poisons inside) can create risk for non-target wildlife.

Community Variation of Gastrointestinal Parasites Found in Urban and Rural Coyotes (Canis latrans) of Calgary, Alberta

Alexander G. Watts et al. — Tue, 24 Apr 2012 11:24:51 PDT

We compared parasite variation in coyote feces collected in eight urban sites within Calgary, Alberta, to those in six rural sites outside the city limits. Four hundred and sixty fresh fecal samples (< 4 days old) were collected weekly between July 2009 and June 2010. Fecal flotation analysis identified parasites to the level of genus. We calculated parasite richness, diversity, and evenness. Parasite richness was significantly greater in rural than urban sites. Disparities in the parasite community included a significant variation in parasite richness, diversity, and evenness among rural and urban sites. Toxascaris leonina and Cystoisospora spp. were shared among all urban sites, while these species in addition to Taenia-like spp. and Trichuris spp. were shared among all rural sites. Both urban and rural sites yielded evidence of Toxocara canis, Taenia-like spp., and Giardia spp., which are potential zoonotic parasites. Toxocara canis was at highest prevalence in a core urban site, Inglewood Wildlands, which exhibits unique biotic and abiotic characteristics. Factors of exposure to parasites, such as diet, behavior, and environmental factors, are suggested to be most influential on variation in urban and rural coyote parasitism. We suggest coyotes are an important focal species for further research in urban disease ecology, due to the resilient nature of the carnivore and its propensity to co-exist with people and domestic animals.

Survival and Growth Factors Affecting Community-Planted Urban Street Trees

Emily J. Jack-Scott — Wed, 29 Feb 2012 13:38:37 PST

Urban street trees face adverse growing conditions: compacted soils, extreme heat, lack of nutrients, drought, car damage and vandalism. Limited funding, however, is cited by urban tree-planting organizations as their major obstacle. To maximize budgets, many organizations along the eastern United States have planted bare root trees as a less expensive alternative to balled-and-burlapped (B&B) trees. Existing research indicates equivalent survival rates between bare root and B&B trees; but no research has examined this in community group-planted urban street trees. Bare root trees are additionally advantageous in community-based plantings because they are much lighter and easier for volunteers to handle. This study evaluated the influence of stock and other site factors on street tree survival and growth measures (diameter at breast height, percent canopy cover, and percent live crown), while controlling for species and age. Site factors included street traffic intensity, site type (curbside, park, yard, or commercial corridor), wound presence, and sidewalk pit cut dimensions. 1159 trees (representing ten species) planted by Philadelphia community groups under the guidance of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society from 2006-2009 were sampled. Overall, trees showed a high survival rate of 95%, with no significant difference between B&B and bare root trees. Species with the highest survival rates were Prunus virginiana (chokecherry), Platanus x acerifolia (London plane tree), and Acer tataricum ssp. ginnala (Amur maple). Heavily trafficked streets exhibited lower survival, percent canopy cover and percent live crown. Larger growth measures were expected and found in B&B trees, as they have historically been planted larger than their bare root counterparts. Findings support planting larger trees (such as B&B and/or larger bare root trees) along commercial corridors. Species in the Rosaceae family (Amelanchier spp., Malus spp, and Prunus virginiana) exhibited lower percents canopy cover. Wound presence and pit cut size were not major factors affecting the 1-5 year old street trees sampled in this study. The major management implication of these findings is that bare root trees are a viable alternative to B&B trees in community-based urban forestry initiatives. Tree-planting campaigns with similar climactic conditions to Philadelphia can use this study to inform selection of stock and species.

Portrayal of Interactions Between Humans and Coyotes (Canis latrans): Content Analysis of Canadian Print Media (1998-2010)

Shelley M. Alexander et al. — Thu, 23 Feb 2012 07:22:23 PST

Print media is one form of public discourse that provides a means to examine human-coyote interactions. We conducted a content analysis of 453 articles addressing coyote events reported in the Canadian print media between 1998 and 2010. We found 119 articles about human-coyote interactions, of which 32 involved a report of coyote biting (26) or attempting to bite (6) a person. 108 articles were about coyote-dogs and 32 about coyotes-cat interactions. Remaining articles were on topics unrelated to interactions (e.g. culls). Basing our analysis in grounded theory, we identified important descriptive and emotional themes surrounding these events. The most common words describing coyotes were: brazen, wiley, mangy, nuisance, wild and vicious. Interactions were described as attacks in 185 articles, while only 32 “attacks” were identified. Coyotes were portrayed as not natural in cities, as an invasive species, and more recently using language depicting criminal behaviour. Descriptions of coyotes killing or attacking people were inflammatory (e.g. savaged, ripped juts open), whereas descriptions of people killing coyotes were not (e.g. euthanized). Five emotional responses emerged describing humans involved in coyote interactions. Of these, statements of fear were most prevalent and yielded the richest understanding of perceptions about the risk of coyote-human interactions, including: fear for children’s safety (73), fear for disease (44), fear for pet safety (43), and fear for self or others safety (35). Traumatic response was reported in 28 articles, while sadness and grief were described in 17. Two other themes were: 1) animal welfare concerns, 2) frustration due to lack of agency response. Popular media plays a critical role in shaping public understanding and can influence people’s emotional experiences, perceptions and management consequences. We highlight that coyotes are prejudiced (and stereotyped) based on the isolated and sensationalized incidents. Coyotes in particular elicit a wide range of emotional responses in people, and there is often a wide gap between perception and reality of risk when understanding whether it is possible for humans and coyotes to co-exist. Hence, there is a strong need for media literacy about the unintended or intended maligning of coyotes to the general public, as the consequence can be social amplification of risk and the unwarranted persecution of coyotes.

Spatial and Temporal Variation of Coyote (Canis latrans) Diet in Calgary, Alberta

Victoria M. Lukasik et al. — Thu, 23 Feb 2012 07:11:02 PST

We examined the diet of a portion of Calgary’s urban coyotes to provide baseline data on feeding ecology, to determine spatial and seasonal effects on diet, and to assess whether anthropogenic food sources (primarily garbage) and domestic cats or dogs were part of coyote diet. Bi-weekly surveys of seven study sites were conducted between August 2006 and September 2007. We analyzed 484 coyote scats. The top five prey types consumed by the coyotes studied were small mammals (84.71%), herbaceous plants (44.63%), crabapples (33.88%), woody plants (16.94%) and anthropogenic food sources (14.05%). Domestic animals – cats (Felis catus) and dogs (Canis familiaris) – were found in 6 scats (1.24% of all scats sampled). Large parks had the greatest amount of scats containing native berries (χ²₆=1700, p<0.001) while smaller parks had higher levels of crabapples (χ²₆=3700, p<0.001) and anthropogenic content (χ²₆=413.4, p<0.001) in scats. Scats containing domestic animals were relatively few, highly localized and occurred primarily in the Calgary neighbourhood with the most frequent reports of aggression/predation behaviour in coyotes. Herbaceous plants (χ²₂=89.273, p<0.001), crabapples (χ²₂=5023, p<0.001) small mammals (χ²₂=755.3, p<0.001) and anthropogenic food sources (χ²₂=183.9, p<0.001) were all consumed most during the Dispersal season. Woody plants (χ²₂=998.0, p<0.001) were consumed significantly more during Pup-Rearing. Coyotes in Calgary consume predominantly natural prey items. However, the presence of anthropogenic food items in 14% of scats suggests heightened risk of food conditioning, a potential for habituation to humans, which can increase human-coyote conflict. We recommend stricter enforcement of garbage laws, responsible husbandry practices with domestic pets (leash animals), and targeted educational campaigns.