Strengthening and Sustaining Dual Language Education in Strengthening and Sustaining Dual Language Education in Catholic Schools Catholic Schools

: The pur pose of this arti cle is two-fold. First, we seek to make a case for the prom ise of dual lan guage pro grams to enhance Cath o lic school ing and enrich edu ca tional oppor tu ni ties for Latinx stu dents. Second, we offer insights into the cur rent land scape of Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams, draw ing upon data from a national sur vey conducted by University of Notre Dame research ers in 2020. Through our pre sen ta tion of the find ings, we con sider char ac ter is tics of cur rent pro gram mod els and iden tify areas of suc cess, chal lenges, and oppor tu ni ties for future growth. We con clude with a dis cus sion of the pos si bil i ties for strength en ing and sus tain ing dual lan guage edu ca-tion in Cath o lic schools.

to increase to 27% by 2060 (U.S. Census, 2017Census, , 2020. One key rec om men da tion from the report was the need to cre ate new Cath o lic school mod els and sys tems that could effec tively and equi ta bly serve Latinx stu dents and their fam i lies. In the years fol low ing this report, Cath o lic edu ca tion research ers and lead ers have begun to iden tify dual lan guage pro grams as one such edu ca tional model with the capac ity to enhance learn ing oppor tu ni ties for Latinx stu dents in Cath o lic schools (e.g., Fraga, 2016;Scanlan & Zehrbach, 2010). Yet, despite the cur rent "explo sion" of dual lan guage pro grams in pub lic schools across the United States (Galván, 2022), Cath o lic schools have been rel a tively slow to embrace this asset-ori ented bilin gual model. There has also been min i mal research on existing dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools, which lim its our under stand ing of how Cath o lic schools can design effec tive, equity-ori ented dual lan guage mod els. The field of bilin gual edu ca tion may also ben e fit from deeper under stand ing of Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams, espe cially given that Cath o lic schools, with their social jus tice ori en ta tion and flex i bil ity in cur ric u lum and assess ment deci sions, may be bet ter posi tioned to com bat chal lenges faced by dual lan guage pro grams in the pub lic sec tor concerning gen tri fi ca tion (Valdez et al., 2016), neo lib er al ism (Bernstein et al., 2020;Freire et al., 2022), and exclu siv ity (Delavan et al., 2022;Flores & Garcia, 2017).
Taking all this into account, our aim in this arti cle is two-fold. First, we seek to make a case for the urgent need for Cath o lic schools to embrace dual lan guage edu ca tion, high light ing recent research on how dual lan guage pro grams can pro mote equi ta ble school ing for Latinx stu dents and build ing upon existing argu ments regard ing the align ment between Cath o lic schools and dual lan guage edu ca tion. Second, we share find ings from a national sur vey of U.S. Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams to con sider what we know about existing mod els and how we might strengthen and sus tain the future of dual lan guage edu ca tion in Cath o lic schools. We close with a dis cus sion of the oppor tu ni ties and chal lenges of dual lan guage edu ca tion in the Cath o lic sec tor and a set of rec om men da tions to guide the design of existing and future dual lan guage pro grams.

Dual Language Education: Definition and Characteristics
Dual lan guage is an umbrella term that refers to an edu ca tional model in which stu dents learn aca demic con tent and lit er acy through two lan guages (Howard et al., 2018). Unlike tra di tional English-only class rooms or English as a Second Language (ESL) pro grams, dual lan guage pro grams view Latinx stu dents' home lan guages and cul tures as resources for learn ing, not bar ri ers to their mastery of English. In the U.S., dual lan guage pro grams typ i cally take the form of "one-way" or "two-way" mod els, terms that indi cate the stu dent pop u la tion served (Boyle et al., 2015; see Table 1). One-way mod els are designed to serve a lin guis ti cally homo ge neous group of stu dents, such as a world lan guage pro gram for native English speak ers or a her i tage lan guage pro gram for minoritized lan guage speak ers. Two-way mod els, on the other hand, serve a lin guis ti cally het ero ge neous group of students, inte grat ing major ity and minoritized lan guage speak ers in the same class room with the goal of stu dents serv ing as lan guage mod els for one another. Two-way dual lan guage pro grams gen er ally seek a 50:50 bal ance of speak ers from each lan guage group, with a min i mum of at least one-third of stu dents from the same lan guage back ground to facil i tate sec ond lan guage acqui si tion (Gómez et al., 2005). In schools with dual lan guage pro grams, the pro gram may be insti tuted school-wide or it may be an optional pro gram along side a tra di tional English medium of instruc tion pro gram (a strand approach). Another impor tant fea ture of dual lan guage pro grams is that they have a clear plan for lan guage allo ca tion, or the per cent age of time that will be spent learn ing in the part ner lan guage and in English. The two most com mon mod els of lan guage allo ca tion are 90/10 and 50/50. In a 90/10 model, kin der gar ten stu dents receive 90% of their instruc tion in the part ner lan guage and 10% of their instruc tion in English. Then, in each sub se quent grade, 10% more instruc tional time is added in English until reaching a 50/50 split (usu ally by 4 th grade). In a 50/50 model, stu dents receive equal amounts of instruc tion in both lan guages in each grade through out the pro gram. Research has found that stu dents par tici pat ing in 90/10 mod els tend to develop higher lev els of pro fi ciency in the non-English part ner lan guage (Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008;Steele et al., 2017); how ever, across both 50/50 and 90/10 mod els, stu dents typ i cally achieve at or above grade level in English lan guage arts by the time they reach mid dle school (Howard et al., 2018).
While dual lan guage pro grams vary in their struc ture and stu dent pop u la tion served, they tend to share three com mon goals: (1) grade-level aca demic achieve ment, (2) bilin gual ism and biliteracy, and (3) socio cul tural com pe tence, a term that encompasses cross-cul tural under stand ing and pos i tive iden tity devel op ment (Boyle et al., 2015;Howard et al., 2018). More recently, research ers have also begun call ing for crit i cal con scious ness to be added as a fourth goal of dual lan guage edu ca tion, a term that high lights the need to deepen stu dents' under stand ing of power, priv i lege, and oppres sion as a means to build a more equi ta ble soci ety (Cervantes-Soon et al., 2017;Palmer et al., 2019). As is evidenced through these goals, dual lan guage pro grams do not sac ri fice con tent learn ing at the expense of lan guage learn ing-rather, stu dents acquire lan guage as they learn grade-level con tent. These goals also high light that effec tive dual lan guage pro grams acknowl edge the inter re la tion of lan guage, cul ture, power, and iden tity, and, accord ingly, design pro gram matic struc tures and learn ing expe ri ences that honor stu dents' rich lin guis tic and cul tural back grounds and work to pro mote social jus tice.
In recent years, the num ber of dual lan guage pro grams in the U.S. has increased expo nen tially. In 2000, experts esti mated that there were approx i ma tely 260 pro grams in the U.S. (Wilson, 2011). Twenty years later, the Amer i can Councils Research Center (ARC) iden ti fied more than 3,600 dual lan guage pro grams in pub lic schools across forty-four states, with California, North Carolina, New York, Texas, and Utah each hous ing over 200 pro grams (ARC, 2021). These num bers are likely to increase given ongo ing ini tia tives to pro mote dual lan guage edu ca tion across the United States. For exam ple, in 2020 the state of Washington announced a com mit ment to offer dual lan guage edu ca tion to all stu dents in the state by 2030 (Washington Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2021). Currently, twenty-seven instruc tional lan guages are used along side English in dual lan guage pro grams across the U.S., although Span ish is by far the most com mon part ner lan guage, account ing for roughly 80% of all dual lan guage pro grams, followed by Chi nese (8.6%) and French (5.0%; ARC, 2021).

Research on Dual Language Education
Research on dual lan guage edu ca tion has con sis tently found that stu dents in these pro grams out per form their peers in other edu ca tional mod els, regard less of stu dents' race, eth nic ity, class, or dom i nant lan guage (Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008;Morita-Mullaney et al., 2020;Steele et al., 2017;Thomas & Collier, 2012). Dual lan guage pro grams are espe cially effec tive at clos ing the achieve ment gap for stu dents iden ti fied as English learn ers (ELs), both in terms of English lan guage acqui si tion and aca demic con tent learn ing (Lindholm-Leary & Borsato, 2006;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Morita-Mullaney et al., 2020). In the larg est ran dom-assign ment study of dual lan guage edu ca tion to date, Steele and col leagues (2017) com pared data from seven cohorts of lan guage immer sion lot tery appli cants in the Portland Public School District, explor ing aca demic out comes for stu dents who were suc cess ful in the lot tery (i.e., entered a dual lan guage pro gram in kin der gar ten) and those who were not. They found that par tic i pa tion in a dual lan guage pro gram led to increased read ing per for mance (in English) for stu dents in fifth and eighth grades (reflecting 7 to 9 addi tional months of learn ing) and reduced the prob a bil ity of stu dents remaining clas si fied as ELs. Other stud ies com par ing large-scale assess ment data sets (e.g., Morita-Mullaney et al., 2020;Thomas & Collier, 2012) have reported sim i larly pos i tive find ings about the aca demic ben e fits of dual lan guage edu ca tion com pared to other pro gram mod els, par tic u larly for Latinx stu dents and ELs (Lindholm-Leary & Hernandez, 2011;Valentino & Reardon, 2015).
The affordances of dual lan guage edu ca tion extend beyond aca demic achieve ment. Psychological research ers have high lighted the cog ni tive ben e fits of bilin gual ism, includ ing improved work ing mem ory and atten tion con trol (Bialystok & Craik, 2010;Bialystok et al., 2008). Researchers have also found that bilin gual chil dren are bet ter able to take a stranger's per spec tive (Liberman et al., 2017), which might con trib ute to improved cross-cul tural under stand ings and the devel op ment of empa thy. While research on cross-cul tural com pe tence is scant (Feinauer & Howard, 2014), existing stud ies have found that stu dents in two-way dual lan guage pro grams value hav ing class ma tes from a vari ety of lin guis tic and cul tural back grounds (Bearse & de Jong, 2008;Block, 2011;Cazabon, et al., 1998;Lindholm-Leary, 2011) and that these pos i tive atti tudes per sist even after stu dents are no longer in the pro gram (Bearse & de Jong, 2008;de Jong & Bearse, 2011;Lindholm-Leary & Borsato, 2001). Other stud ies have high lighted the eco nomic ben e fits of bilin gual ism, dem on strat ing the mate rial oppor tu ni ties afforded by know ing more than one lan guage (Callahan & Gándara, 2014). And, impor tantly, Latinx stu dents who par tic i pate in dual lan guage pro grams main tain and develop their home (or her i tage) lan guage, which may con trib ute to greater inter gen er a tional con ti nu ity and an increased sense of belong ing (de Jong et al., 2020;Wright, 2013).
While these find ings are prom is ing, it is impor tant to also rec og nize that dual lan guage pro grams are not with out their chal lenges and cri tiques (Dorner & Cervantes-Soon, 2020). Twenty-five years ago, Valdés (1997) cau tioned that dual lan guage pro grams might be reinforcing social inequities by pri or i tiz ing the needs of major ity lan guage speak ing stu dents over minoritized lan guage speak ing stu dents. Since then, a sub stan tive body of research has val i dated these con cerns, reveal ing how white, English-dom i nant stu dents are often cen tered in pol icy texts, recruit ment efforts, and pro gram design deci sions (Dorner, 2011;Freire et al., 2017;Valdez et al., 2016). The absence of rep re sen ta tion from minoritized com mu ni ties in such dis cus sions con trib utes to pro grams being designed in sites that are less favor able to immi grant com mu ni ties (Dorner, 2011) and to the exclu sion of stu dents who would most ben e fit from the oppor tu nity to learn through a bilin gual pro gram model (Flores & García, 2017;Freire et al., 2022;Valdez et al., 2016). There are also con cerns that dual lan guage pro grams may limit stu dents' access to higher level math e mat ics and sci ence courses in mid dle school, as pro gram matic require ments (e.g., need ing to take lan guage arts and sci ence in Span ish) along side insti tu tional sched ul ing constraints (e.g., advanced courses only offered at cer tain times) con trib ute to exclu sion ary track ing (Morita-Mullaney et al., 2020).
Researchers have also documented inequities within the dual lan guage class room, reveal ing how the bilin gual ism of native English speak ers is often per ceived diff er ently than that of minoritized stu dents-as excep tional rather than expected (Hamman-Ortiz, 2020)-and how class room par tic i pa tion pat terns may priv i lege mid dle class English speak ers over their Span ish-dom i nant peers (Palmer, 2009). English also tends to main tain a higher sta tus in the class room com pared to the part ner lan guage, as evidenced by stu dents' stated and enacted pref er ences toward using English (Babino & Stewart, 2016;Potowski, 2004;Rubinstein-Avila, 2002) and through English lan guage assess ment prac tices that per pet u ate English hege mony and ideologies of monolingualism (Bernstein et al., 2020). Collectively, these are impor tant con cerns that need to be inter ro gated and addressed as we con sider the path way for ward for pro mot ing and sus tain ing equity-ori ented dual lan guage pro grams in U.S. Cath o lic schools.

The Case for Dual Language Education in Cath o lic Schools
In the United States, the Cath o lic Church established the larg est pri vate school sys tem in the world, which, at its founding, was almost sin gu larly devoted to serv ing immi grant com mu ni ties (Caruso, 2012). Many of these early Cath o lic schools offered an edu ca tion that affirmed immi grant stu dents' home lan guages and cul tures through bilin gual instruc tion (Bryk et al., 1993), which was often absent in the local pub lic school sys tem. In the mid to late 1800s, Cath o lic schools in Texas cit ies such as Brownsville, El Paso, and San Antonio offered instruc tion in Span ish and English to Mex i can and Mex i can Amer i can stu dents, which even tu ally prompted some pub lic schools to begin offer ing bilin gual instruc tion (Blanton, 2004). Ger man was taught in Cath o lic schools in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Missouri, Minnesota, North and South Dakota, and Texas (Wiley, 1998). These schools often emerged in response to lan guage prej u dice and anti-Cath o lic sen ti ment, a means for Ger man immi grants to retain their lan guage, cul ture, and faith (Pitt, 1976;Wiley, 1998). In 1886, 65% of stu dents receiv ing instruc tion in Ger man were being edu cated in pri vate schools, 38% of which were Cath o lic schools (Conzen, 1980). Again, to com pete with the loss of stu dents to pri vate schools, many pub lic schools began to offer edu ca tion in Ger man. In Chicago in the 20th cen tury, Pol ish was used as a medium of instruc tion in Cath o lic schools serv ing this grow ing immi grant pop u la tion, pro vid ing her i tage lan guage instruc tion at a time when antibilin gual edu ca tion sen ti ment across the nation was ram pant (Baker & Wright, 2017). As is clear from this his tory, bilin gual pro grams have deep roots in Cath o lic edu ca tion, par tic u larly as a vehi cle to serve immi grant com mu ni ties.
Repressive lan guage pol i cies of the early 20th cen tury led to the unfor tu nate elim i na tion of many bilin gual pro grams in both pub lic and pri vate schools. The con tem po rary bilin gual edu cation move ment emerged as part of the Civil Rights Era of the 1960s, largely in response to these repres sive pol i cies and in con junc tion with other social jus tice-ori ented move ments. In 1963, the first two-way dual lan guage pro gram in the U.S. was launched at Coral Way Elementary in Miami Dade County, founded by a com mu nity of highly edu cated Cubans who had fled to Florida in the late 1950s and sought to pre serve their lan guage and cul ture (Coady, 2019). During this era, Latinx com mu ni ties across the nation were advo cat ing for improved edu ca tional oppor tu ni ties, which led to the pas sage of the Bilingual Education Act (BEA) in 1968 (Flores, 2016). Despite its name, the BEA did not actu ally man date bilin gual edu ca tion, but it did allo cate funds toward pro grams that uti lize stu dents' home lan guages dur ing instruc tion, which enabled the return of bilin gual pro grams to U.S. schools . Initially, these pro grams were designed to serve minoritized lan guage speak ers only; how ever, over sub se quent decades, these pro grams expanded under the umbrella of "dual lan guage" edu ca tion to include pro grams that also served native English speak ers. While the English-only leg is la tion of the 1990s and early 2000s (e.g., Proposition 227 in California and Question 2 in Mas sa chu setts) dealt another blow to bilin gual edu ca tion, this repres sive leg is la tion has largely been overturned and enthu si asm for dual lan guage edu ca tion is again on the rise (ARC, 2021; Galván, 2022).
Yet, despite the long his tory of Cath o lic schools as a fore run ner and haven for bilin gual edu ca tion in the U.S., most of the growth of dual lan guage pro grams has occurred in the pub lic edu ca tion sec tor. Based on recent data from the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES; 2020) and the Amer i can Councils Research Center (ARC; 2021), we esti mate that 3.7% of U.S. pub lic schools offer dual lan guage edu ca tion 2 . In com par i son, our esti mated per cent age of Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams is a mere 0.8% 3 , despite the fact that Cath o lic schools increas ingly serve a sig nifi cant num ber of Latinx stu dents-as of the 2021-2022 school year, 18.6% of stu dents in Cath o lic schools iden ti fied as His panic (National Cath o lic Educational Association [NCEA], 2022). Additionally, while this fig ure is sub stan tial enough to jus tify the need for dual lan guage Cath o lic schools, it is worth not ing that Cath o lic schools could be serv ing an even greater num ber of Latinx stu dents. The Latinx com mu nity cur rently rep re sents more than 40% of Cath o lics in America (Huckle, 2019), and, as of 2019, 47% of Latinx peo ple iden ti fied as Cath o lics (Ospino & Wyttenbach, 2022). The dis pro por tion ately small per cent age of Latinx stu dents enrolled in Cath o lic schools is an even more sub stan tial call for fur ther invest ment in this impactful model. Thus, beyond enabling Cath o lic schools to bet ter serve their cur rent Latinx stu dent pop u la tionwhich, we con tend, should be the pri mary goal of Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams-dual language pro grams might also offer a vital life line to Cath o lic schools. According to the NCEA (2022), Cath o lic schools have been fac ing the chal lenge of shrink ing enroll ment since their peak in the early 1960s when over five mil lion chil dren attended 12,893 Cath o lic schools. By the 1990s, Cath o lic school enroll ment had decreased by more than half to approx i ma tely 2.5 mil lion stu dents across 8,719 schools. Between 2010 and 2020, these trends con tin ued, as the num ber of Cath o lic schools decreased by 14.3% (999 schools) and the num ber of stu dents declined by 21.3% (439,581 stu dents). The 2021-2022 school year pro vided a hope ful excep tion, in which enroll ment in Cath o lic schools increased by 3.8% for the first time in two decades, which the NCEA attrib uted to "Cath o lic schools' ded i ca tion in safely open ing class rooms and supporting their com mu ni ties' needs amidst the COVID-19 pan demic." Nevertheless, maintaining and increas ing enroll ment remains a chal lenge for Cath o lic schools across the nation. The wide spread pop u lar ity of dual lan guage edu ca tion and the poten tial to attract the large Latinx Cath o lic pop u la tion who pres ently do not send their chil dren to Cath o lic schools might serve a mutu ally ben e fi cial pur pose: help ing Cath o lic schools to thrive while simul ta neously bet ter serv ing Latinx stu dents and com mu ni ties.
Of course, the ratio nale for expanded dual lan guage pro gram ming in Cath o lic schools extends beyond increas ing enroll ment. In addi tion to the his tor i cal con text and demo graphic imper a tive, there are impor tant faith-based rea sons why Cath o lic schools are uniquely positioned to develop dual lan guage pro grams that serve Latinx stu dent pop u la tions. Scanlan and Zehrbach (2010) argue that dual lan guage pro grams, and two-way immer sion (TWI) pro grams spe cifi cally, align with three fun da men tal tenets of Cath o lic Social Teaching: (1) an empha sis on human dig nity, (2) pur suit of the com mon good, and (3) a pref er en tial option for the mar gin al ized. They explain: By pro mot ing aca demic growth and bilin gual ism, TWI places value on the dig nity of each indi vid ual learner. By help ing stu dents develop skills to nav i gate and build rela tion ships across cul tur ally and lin guis ti cally diverse com mu ni ties, TWI pro motes the com mon good. By effec tively serv ing a pop u la tion of stu dents who have tra di tion ally been mar gin al ized in schools, namely stu dents with lim ited English pro fi ciency, TWI dem on strates a pref er en tial option for the mar gin al ized (p. 76).
Building upon these argu ments, Fraga (2016) notes that dual lan guage pro grams also align with recent calls from the United States Conference of Cath o lic Bishops (USCCB) for the U.S. Cath o lic Church to build min is tries of intercultural com pe tence. As outlined in two USCCB pub li ca tions, Building Intercultural Competence for Ministers (USCCB, 2012) and Best Practices for Shared Parishes: So That They May All Be One (USCCB, 2014), Cath o lic parishes (and schools) are becom ing increas ingly diverse and, thus, are called upon to adopt more inclu sive prac tices that bring together all mem bers of their cul tur ally and lin guis ti cally diverse com mu ni ties. Two-way dual lan guage pro grams, as inte gra tive mod els by design, are espe cially well posi tioned to serve as a vehi cle for uni fi ca tion of the U.S. Cath o lic pop u la tion. Fraga explains, "TWI is not only aligned with his tor i cal under stand ings of Cath o lic social teach ing, it is fully aligned with the pri or i ties iden ti fied by the USCCB for build ing a broader, more inte grated Cath o lic com mu nity in the United States, given the coun try's grow ing mul ti lin gual and mul ti cul tural diver sity." He con cludes, "It is hard to imag ine a bet ter gift that lead ers of Cath o lic schools can leave to later gen er a tions of Cath o lic faith ful" (p. 157). It is, there fore, evi dent that syn er gies exist between the goals of dual lan guage pro grams and the mis sion of the Cath o lic Church to serve the mar gin al ized, pro mote human dig nity, and fos ter inclu sive com mu ni ties. Using the pro gram design strands outlined in the Guiding Principles of Dual Language Education (Howard et al., 2018) as an ini tial frame work, we established six categories to frame the sur vey: Demographics and Enrollment, Program Structure, Program Goals and Resources, Curriculum and Assessment, Areas of Success, and Areas of Need (see Appendix for sur vey struc ture and ques tions). The research team met biweekly for a period of four months (Sep tem ber to Decem ber 2019) to develop and hone the instru ment, draw ing upon our col lec tive expe ri ence in devel op ing, lead ing, and researching dual lan guage pro grams to craft the sur vey, which was sub se quently built in Qualtrics. Many of the items were open-ended, seek ing com par a tive infor ma tion about pro gram design, cur ric u lar resources, and stu dent pop u la tion. Other items were rated on a scale, includ ing areas of suc cess (rang ing from 1 [not suc cess ful] to 4 [highly suc cess ful]) and areas of need (rang ing from 1 [low need] to 3 [high need]).
Survey par tic i pants were iden ti fied through their par tic i pa tion in existing Cath o lic dual lan guage edu ca tion net works (e.g., the Two-Way Immersion Network of Cath o lic Schools [TWIN-CS] at Bos ton College) and by inquir ing across our own net works at the University of Notre Dame and beyond. In total, we iden ti fied 30 U.S. Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams 4 . Leaders at all of these schools were invited to take the sur vey via an emailed invi ta tion with a Qualtrics link. Of this group, 22 school lead ers par tic i pated in the sur vey. Upon review of the results, one response was elim i nated because two lead ers par tic i pated from the same school (the assis tant prin ci pal and prin ci pal) and another was elim i nated since the leader only par tially com pleted the sur vey. The final sur vey rep re sents data from 20 Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams.
To ana lyze the sur vey responses, we employed an iter a tive approach to data anal y sis that com bines deduc tive and induc tive cod ing (Maxwell, 2013). Using the frame of our sur vey categories (e.g., pro gram design, pro gram goals), each team mem ber indi vid u ally read through and coded the data, iden ti fy ing com mon al i ties and trends across school sites and seek ing out incongruencies in the data (LeCompte & Schensul, 2010). We then met as a team to com pare and cross-check our ini tial notic ings, which resulted in the merg ing of some of the orig i nal categories and the iden ti fica tion of salient themes emerg ing within and across responses to indi vid ual sur vey ques tions. The resulting find ings are presented in the sub se quent sec tion.

Findings
The find ings are divided into two sub sec tions: (1)

Characteristics of DL Cath o lic Schools
In this sec tion, we pres ent find ings relat ing to the char ac ter is tics of Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams, includ ing demo graphic infor ma tion, stu dent enroll ment trends, pro gram model design, lan guage allo ca tion plan, and cur ric u lar and assess ment resources. In addi tion to map ping the land scape of existing pro grams, we also iden tify sim i lar i ties and diff er ences across pro grams and high light areas of prom ise.

Demographic Data and Student Enrollment Trends
Survey data revealed that Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams are found across the United States. The 20 Cath o lic schools represented in the sur vey are situated across ten states (Arizona, California, Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, Hawaii, Illi nois, Texas, Washington) and Washington DC, with 40% of schools located in California (n = 8). This rep re sen ta tion par al lels trends in the pub lic sec tor, as dual lan guage pro grams are cur rently found across forty-four U.S. states, with California hous ing the larg est num ber of dual lan guage pro grams nation wide (ARC, 2021). Many of the schools sur veyed are the only Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams in their city or state. As one leader shared, "I am so happy that there is devel op ing inter est in Cath o lic school dual lan guage pro grams. Many times, we are the only school in our dio cese or in our region with a dual lan guage pro gram." While some of the sur veyed schools are mem bers of Cath o lic dual lan guage net works (e.g., TWIN-CS), oth ers are not part of any for mal net work of sup port.
The sur vey also found that Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams are largely two-way lan guage learn ing envi ron ments: 80% of schools reported serv ing both English-dom i nant and part ner-lan guage dom i nant stu dents. As explained ear lier, within two-way pro gram mod els, typ i cally half (or more) of the stu dents served are lan guage minoritized speak ers. The remaining 20% of schools reported serv ing mostly or exclu sively dom i nant speak ers of English. These find ings are sig nifi cant in a Cath o lic con text because they sug gest these learn ing com mu ni ties are indeed answer ing the Bishop's call to build broader, intercultural Cath o lic com mu ni ties. They also pro vide an impor tant counter-nar ra tive to the valid con cern that dual lan guage pro grams are being developed to pri mar ily serve native English speak ers (Valdez et al., 2016), reveal ing that this is largely not the case in Cath o lic edu ca tion con texts.
Data also revealed that dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools are a newer phe nom enon: 60% of the schools sur veyed reported that their dual lan guage pro grams had been started within the last five years. Of this group, 20% of schools reported launching their pro gram within the last two years. School lead ers were also asked to pro vide stu dent enroll ment data for the cur rent school year (2019-2020) and the two pre vi ous school years. Based on this data, 85% of schools reported increas ing (70%) or maintaining (15%) stu dent enroll ment over the course of two years (see Figure 1 and Table 2). Several of the existing schools expe ri enced sig nifi cant increases in enroll ment over the past two years, includ ing one school in California (School M) that grew from 220 to 312 stu dents (a 42% increase), and another in Indiana (School F) that expanded from 202 to 310 stu dents (a 54% increase). Additionally, two schools were newly opened within the past two years, cre ated spe cifi cally to launch a dual lan guage pro gram (School G and School Q). Only three of the twenty schools sur veyed (15%) reported a trend of declin ing enroll ment.

Program Model
With regards to pro gram design, school lead ers were asked to report if their dual lan guage program served all of the stu dents at the school (a whole school model) or was one option along side a tra di tional English pro gram (i.e., a strand model). Just over half of the schools (55%) reported offer ing both a dual lan guage track and a tra di tional English instruc tion track. The remaining schools (45%) reported that all stu dents par tic i pated in the dual lan guage pro gram. Interestingly, even in strand mod els, there is evi dence that dual lan guage pro grams may be pos i tively impacting how Cath o lic schools embrace the lin guis tic and cul tural back grounds of their stu dents. As an exam ple of these prac tices, school lead ers were asked how often bilin gual lit ur gies were cel ebrated at the school, with the goal of bet ter under stand ing if and how the bilin gual goals of the pro gram were incor po rated into faith-based activ i ties. Across the data, 65% of schools reported that lit ur gies were "often" or "always" cel e brated bilin gually. While bilin gual lit ur gies were more fre quently cel e brated at the schools with a full-school dual lan guage pro gram, it is worth not ing that 54% of schools with a strand model reported that bilin gual lit ur gies were "often" or "always" cel e brated-and that fig ure increases to 82% when also includ ing the schools with a strand model reporting "occa sion ally" cel e brat ing bilin gual lit ur gies. This sug gests that, even when a dual language pro gram serves only some of the stu dents at a school, it may con trib ute to more lin guis ti cally and cul tur ally inclu sive prac tices school wide.
Span ish was the pri mary part ner lan guage in almost all pro grams (95%), with only two schools offer ing instruc tion in Mandarin, one as an addi tional track to Span ish and the other as the main part ner lan guage. It is worth not ing that both of the Cath o lic schools offer ing dual lan guage edu ca tion in Mandarin (one in California and the other in Hawaii) established their pro grams to meet the cul tural and lin guis tic needs of Mandarin speak ing stu dents and fam i lies (Kanai, 2018; C. Fuller, per sonal com mu ni ca tion, Sep tem ber 29, 2022). This inten tional focus on serv ing Chi nese-speak ing fam i lies and on pro mot ing her i tage lan guage main te nance count ers national trends as, in recent years, Mandarin-English dual lan guage pro grams have tended to serve White, native English-speak ing stu dents, with rel a tively small enroll ment of Chi nese-speak ing or Chi neseher i tage stu dents (Li & Wen, 2015;Valdez et al., 2016;Wong & Tian, 2022).

Language Allocation
School lead ers were asked to report on the lan guage allo ca tion plan guid ing their dual lan guage pro gram, with the options of "90/10, " "50/50, " and "other." Among the schools sur veyed, the major ity (65%) reported using a 50/50 approach and the oth ers (35%) fol low a 90/10 model. While lead ers were not explic itly asked to give their ratio nale for choos ing a par tic u lar pro gram model, it is worth not ing that many fac tors impact whether a school may elect to pur sue a 90/10 or 50/50 model, espe cially staffing con cerns. For exam ple, one school leader in Iowa, shared, "We were at 90-10, but this year and next year we had to go to 50-50 because we can not hire enough teach ers to teach in Span ish." As the 90/10 model requires a greater num ber of teach ers pro fi cient in the non-English part ner lan guage, it is per haps unsur pris ing that most schools have elected the 50/50 lan guage allo ca tion model.
The sur vey also asked lead ers to report on more spe cific aspects of lan guage allo ca tion, including whether lan guages are assigned to con tent areas, units of study, or time peri ods (e.g., days of the week) and whether teach ers taught in one lan guage exclu sively or in both. In response to the first ques tion, 90% of lead ers reported that the two instruc tional lan guages are assigned to diff er ent con tent areas in their dual lan guage pro grams. For exam ple, one school reported that math e mat ics, Span ish lan guage arts, and sci ence are taught in Span ish, while reli gion, social stud ies, and English lan guage arts are taught in English. Only two schools followed a diff er ent approach, with one school alter nat ing lan guages by day of the week (e.g., M/W/F in Span ish; T/Th in English) and the other alter nat ing lan guages by units of instruc tion (e.g., one sci ence unit taught in English, the next in Span ish). The pop u lar ity of assigning lan guage to diff er ent con tent areas may be moti vated from a resource stand point, as instruc tional mate ri als for each con tent area only need to be procured in one lan guage in this approach.
Responding to the sec ond ques tion, lead ers reported a range of approaches to struc tur ing teachers' lan guage of instruc tion. The major ity (60%) reported that teach ers were assigned to deliver instruc tion in one lan guage only (often termed the "one teacher-one lan guage" approach). Only two schools (10%) reported that the same teacher instructed in both lan guages. However, 30% of schools reported some com bi na tion of the two. For exam ple, one school shared that teach ers in grades K-2 followed the one teacher-one lan guage method while teach ers in grades 3-8 instructed in both lan guages. Reflecting upon her school's approach, another leader noted, "It ulti mately depends on staffing avail abil ity so it can vary from year to year." In sum, while there are some com mon al i ties across pro grams, it is evi dent that there is no sin gle model for lan guage allo ca tion used across all Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams, and that deci sions are often driven by the avail abil ity of bilin gual teach ers and resources in the non-English lan guage.

Curriculum and Assessment
Schools were also asked to report on their cur ric ula for teach ing lan guage arts and math e mat ics (in Span ish) and on assess ments used to mea sure aca demic achieve ment (in any lan guage). Findings revealed that schools draw from a wide range of cur ric u lar and eval u a tive resources in their dual lan guage pro grams. For Span ish lan guage arts, schools reported nine diff er ent cur ric ula (e.g., Maravillas, Arriba la lectura, Estrellita, Senderos, Benchmark), and three schools shared that they had devel oped their own cur ric ula. There was less var i a tion in math e mat ics, as most schools who teach the sub ject in Span ish reported using Pearson's enVision Math, although there were three schools using a diff er ent cur ric u lum and five schools that reported not teach ing math e mat ics in Span ish. Regarding assess ments, there was no con sis tent tool used across all schools-thir teen diff er ent assess ments were reported. That said, the major ity of school lead ers did report hav ing some form of assess ment in Spanish, with Star/Renaissance Learning being the most com mon (40% of schools), an impor tant find ing given the dom i nance of English in the cur rent cli mate of high-stakes assess ment (Menken & Solorza, 2014) and the impor tance of ensur ing lin guis tic equity across all facets of cur ric u lum, instruc tion, and assess ment in dual lan guage pro grams (Howard et al., 2018).

Goals, Successes, and Challenges in Cath o lic Dual Language Programs
In this sec tion, we pres ent find ings related to the goals, successes, and chal lenges iden ti fied by lead ers at Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams. In discussing pro gram goals, we high light find ings related to the val ues under pin ning pro gram design and con sider these in rela tion to Cath o lic schools' mis sion of ser vice to mar gin al ized com mu ni ties. In presenting successes and challenges, we show how lead ers largely per ceive their pro grams to be suc cess ful, while also iden ti fy ing sev eral press ing areas of need that must be addressed in order to sus tain and grow dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools.

Program Goals
Establishing clear pro gram matic goals is a hall mark of a high-qual ity dual lan guage pro gram (Howard et al., 2018). Such goals also reveal under ly ing val ues and beliefs, in addi tion to prac ti cal con cerns that may be guid ing the design and implementation of dual lan guage pro grams. To gain insight into what school lead ers iden ti fied as cen tral goals for their dual lan guage pro grams, we gen er ated a list of nine options that included the three tra di tional goals of dual lan guage edu ca tion (out stand ing aca demic for ma tion, bilin gual ism and biliteracy, intercultural com pe tence) as well as some addi tional items of rel e vance to Cath o lic schools and to serv ing Latinx stu dents (strength en ing faith for ma tion, finan cial sta bil ity, growth in enroll ment, niche offer ing in a com pet i tive mar ket, bet ter serv ing lan guage minor ity speak ing stu dents, other). From this list, school lead ers were asked to select their top three goals. Of these, the most fre quent goal iden ti fied was bilin gual ism and biliteracy (95% of respon dents), followed by growth in enroll ment (50% of respon dents), and out stand ing aca demic for ma tion (45% of respon dents; see Figure 2).

Top Three Program Goals (as Identified by School Leaders)
While it is per haps unsur pris ing that cul ti vat ing bilin gual ism and biliteracy is a top pro grammatic goal for Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams, it is nota ble that growth in enroll ment was a more com monly cited goal than the other two tra di tional goals of dual lan guage pro grams (i.e., aca demic achieve ment and intercultural com pe tence). The atten tion to fis cal con cerns-growth in enroll ment (50% of respon dents), finan cial sta bil ity (30% of respon dents), and niche offer ing in a com pet i tive mar ket (15% of respon dents)-within a school leader's top three iden ti fied program matic goals seems to reflect the prag matic con sid er ations that lead ers face as they work to sus tain their schools within an often chal leng ing cli mate for enroll ment (and the role that the dual lan guage pro gram plays within these con cerns).
Another find ing of inter est was that bet ter serv ing lan guage minor ity speak ing stu dents was only selected as a top 3 goal by 25% of school lead ers, espe cially given that 80% of the schools serve lan guage minoritized speak ers. In reflecting upon this item, one leader shared a poi gnant com mentary about the need to (re)cen ter minoritized stu dents in the design and implementation of dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools: I feel strongly that there must be phi los o phy devel op ment as to why immer sion edu ca tion is pur sued in Cath o lic schools. If the sole rea son to pur sue immer sion edu ca tion is because it will increase enroll ment and save our schools from clos ing, then in the end, it will not work. That is a phi los o phy of "receiv ing." Immersion must be seen com pletely through the lens of "giv ing" or ser vice: ser vice to an immi grant pop u la tion; ser vice to those who are mar ginal ized and often for got ten by the edu ca tional sys tem; ser vice to the future of the Cath o lic Church in the United States . . . Immersion edu ca tion is still a road less trav eled and will require great faith to develop. With this "giv ing" phi los o phy in place, immer sion edu ca tion will trans form Cath o lic schools.
From this reflec tion, it is evi dent that some Cath o lic school lead ers view dual lan guage edu ca tion as the cen tral means through which schools can accom plish their mis sion of ser vice to mar gin al ized com mu ni ties. However, given that many school lead ers did not iden tify serv ing minor ity speak ing stu dents as a top pro gram matic goal, there may be a need, as this leader pro poses, for increased for ma tion around the mis sion of serv ing mar gin al ized stu dents through dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools.

Areas of Success
School lead ers were asked to rate their pro gram's areas of suc cess across ten diff er ent indica tors (see Table 3). Overall, schools reported high to mod er ate lev els of suc cess in almost all categories. Areas with the most reported suc cess (i.e., mod er ate to high lev els) were par ent sat is fac tion (100%), Cath o lic faith for ma tion (100%), stu dents' aca demic suc cess (95%), stu dents' sec ond lan guage learn ing (95%), and fac ulty/staff intercultural com pe tency (95%). Following these categories were stu dents' intercultural com pe tency (90%) and par ent engage ment (85%). Areas with the low est reported suc cess were finan cial sta bil ity (60%), increas ing enroll ment (70%), and par ent intercultural com pe tency (70%).
These find ings sug gest that most school lead ers believe their pro grams are at least mod erately suc cess ful in achiev ing the pri mary aims of dual lan guage pro grams (i.e., bilin gual ism and biliteracy, aca demic achieve ment, socio cul tural com pe tence). That said, the per cent ages were decid edly lower when looking solely at the schools that rated them selves as highly suc cess ful in these two areas-50% for sec ond lan guage learn ing, 33% for aca demic achieve ment, and 30% for stu dent intercultural com pe tency-which reveals that these may be areas in need of fur ther develop ment. The third goal of dual lan guage edu ca tion (socio cul tural/intercultural com pe tency) has his tor i cally been more diffi cult to define and eval u ate (Feinauer & Howard, 2014), so it is per haps unsur pris ing that school lead ers felt the least suc cess ful in this area. Intercultural com pe tency for all stake hold ers, espe cially par ents, appears to be an area where dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools would ben e fit from more targeted sup port.
While school lead ers seem largely enthu si as tic about their pro gram's abil ity to meet aca demic, lin guis tic, and faith-based goals, they reported less opti mism toward their pro gram's oper a tional vital ity. Despite the fact that enroll ment across most Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams has been increas ing, many school lead ers rated their finan cial sta bil ity as only some what suc cess ful or as unsuc cess ful (40%) and approx i ma tely one-third of respon dents felt that their increased enroll ment aims had only been some what suc cess ful (30%). These are impor tant con sid er ations as we look toward the future of dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools, and the sus tain abil ity of Cath o lic schools more broadly.

Challenges
School lead ers were also asked to rate the needs of their dual lan guage pro gram using a scale of high/mod er ate/low across a range of areas, includ ing per son nel, resources, and recruit ment, among oth ers (see Table 4). Based on the pro vided categories, the top iden ti fied area of need was find ing highqual ity teach ers (60% high need; 30% mod er ate need). Finding sub sti tutes and para pro fes sion als was also iden ti fied as a sig nifi cant need (35% high need; 50% mod er ate need), but to a lesser extent. Given the national short age of bilin gual teach ers (Torre Gibney et al., 2021), this need is not sur pris ing and points to the impor tance of con tinu ing to build path ways for bilin gual indi vid u als to enter the pro fes sion. A related chal lenge that lead ers cited is com pet ing with the higher salaries and supe rior ben e fits in the pub lic edu ca tion sec tor. One leader shared, "It is really hard to recruit and keep highly qual i fied staff due to the low salaries and ben e fits." This find ing sug gests that there is a need to iden tify spe cific fac tors that con trib ute to teacher reten tion and sat is fac tion in Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams to address this ongo ing and press ing chal lenge.
Another sig nifi cant area of need iden ti fied by school lead ers was find ing highqual ity cur ric u lar resources (45% high need; 40% mod er ate need). The lack of high-qual ity resources is another well-documented chal lenge faced by dual lan guage pro grams more broadly (Amrein & Peña, 2000;Wiese, 2004), one that has improved over time (par tic u larly with Span ish resources) but remains an ongo ing diffi culty. Assessing the pro gram was also iden ti fied as a high (35%) or mod er ate (45%) need for many schools. Nearly all schools sur veyed (85%) reported that their pro gram was informed by The Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education (Howard et al., 2018), which con tains a set of rubrics for mea sur ing pro gram effec tive ness across seven areas and is widely consid ered to be the lead ing frame work for dual lan guage pro gram design and eval u a tion. However, lead ers were not asked to pro vide spe cific infor ma tion about if and how they use this resource as an eval u a tion tool and, more over, The Guiding Principles include no bench marks or items spe cific to Cath o lic edu ca tion (e.g., the fre quency of bilin gual lit ur gies).
Finding highqual ity pro fes sional devel op ment was another area of need iden ti fied by school lead ers (35% high need; 50% mod er ate need). At the same time, most lead ers reported that they or their teach ers par tic i pated in con fer ences related to dual lan guage edu ca tion, includ ing La Cosecha, the annual meet ing of the National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE), and the Summer Academy orga nized by TWIN-CS to sup port its mem ber schools. The fact that pro fes sional devel op ment remains a high or mod er ate need for most schools sug gests that more sup port for teach ers is needed beyond these con fer ences-and per haps also reflects the afore mentioned chal lenge with secur ing and retaining high-qual ity teach ers, as fre quent turn over requires ongo ing train ing to onboard new teach ers and staff into the dual lan guage model.
The two areas iden ti fied as reflecting the low est need by school lead ers were help with trans la tion (0% high need; 25% mod er ate need) and mar ket ing the pro gram (5% high need; 40% mod er ate need). Recruiting fam i lies was also iden ti fied as a rel a tively low/mod er ate need (20% high need; 60% mod er ate need). These find ings sug gest that schools seem to be rel a tively con fi dent with their abil ity to attract new fam i lies into their pro gram and to ensure that mate ri als sent home are acces si ble to all . Looking across the needs sur vey results, it appears that schools with dual lan guage pro grams have been largely suc cess ful in their efforts to attract fam i lies and stu dents into their pro grams but would ben e fit from increased sup port to ensure their pro grams have the per son nel, resources, and train ing nec es sary to be suc cess ful.

Discussion and Implications
In this arti cle, we have sought to make a case for the "prom ise and poten tial" (Fraga, 2016) of dual lan guage pro grams in U.S. Cath o lic schools and to pro vide some insights into the char ac teris tics of existing pro grams. From the range of geo graphic loca tions where dual lan guage pro grams are situated, it is clear that dual lan guage pro grams can (and do) thrive in Cath o lic schools around the nation. Additionally, while it is true that many pri vate schools in the U.S. serve "elite" stu dents (Murnane et al., 2018), this sur vey reveals that most Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams are serv ing mar gin al ized stu dent pop u la tions and, there fore, are more fully engag ing with the call to ser vice that is deeply rooted in the Cath o lic faith. As reported by school lead ers, these pro grams are largely suc cess ful in pro mot ing stu dents' aca demic suc cess and bilin gual devel op ment, which sug gests that dual lan guage edu ca tion may indeed be a vehi cle to pro mote more equi ta ble schooling for Latinx stu dents. Additionally, the find ing that most Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams cel e brate bilin gual lit ur gies, even if the pro gram is only one strand within the school, dem on strates the power of dual lan guage pro grams to cul ti vate more cul tur ally and lin guis ti cally respon sive school com mu ni ties.
Findings with regard to school enroll ment are also prom is ing, as they dem on strate how dual lan guage pro grams might sup port oper a tional vital ity and, thus, help to strengthen and sus tain Cath o lic schools across the coun try. At the same time, it is impor tant to empha size that enroll ment con cerns should not drive the expan sion of Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams. As the school leader so poi gnantly put it, dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools must be rooted in the phi los o phy of "giv ing" (or ser vice) not "receiv ing." In a sim i lar vein, Ospino & Wyttenbach (2022) con tend, "His panic chil dren and fam i lies are not a com mod ity in edu ca tion, they must be mean ing fully engaged and empowered should they enroll and stay in Cath o lic schools" (p. 10). There is also the risk that, due to enroll ment and fis cal con cerns, Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams may shift their focus to recruiting wealthy, English-speak ing stu dents who can pro vide needed tuition dol lars. Therefore, we call upon school lead ers to con sider how they can con tinue to cen ter minoritized stu dents in mean ing ful ways in dual lan guage pro gram design. If done well, we believe that Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams have great poten tial to become vehi cles of equi ta ble edu ca tion for mul ti lin gual learn ers.
The national sur vey also pro vided impor tant insights into the char ac ter is tics of Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams, includ ing com mon al i ties and diff er ences across pro grams and areas where lead ers have iden ti fied press ing needs and chal lenges. In response to these find ings, we close with a series of rec om men da tions, with the hope that these sug ges tions will help strengthen existing Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams and will pro vide guid ance for Cath o lic school lead ers who are con sid er ing launching a dual lan guage pro gram.

Recommendation 1: Strengthen and Cultivate Networks of Support
The national sur vey revealed that dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools are spread across the U.S. with some serv ing as the only dual lan guage Cath o lic school in their state or region. Many of these pro grams are also recently devel oped, and even the more established pro grams expressed a need for more high-qual ity teacher pro fes sional devel op ment. Given these find ings, it is vital that Cath o lic dual lan guage schools work together to grow and strengthen their pro grams. Research has shown that Cath o lic dual lan guage net works such as TWIN-CS at Bos ton College can strengthen pro grams by build ing com mu nity around shared com mit ments and pro vid ing needed pro fes sional learn ing oppor tu ni ties (Scanlan et al., 2019). While many schools are mem bers of TWIN-CS, and oth ers have joined regional Cath o lic dual lan guage net works such as the TWI Initiative at the University of Notre Dame or the Dual Language Immersion Network at the Los Angeles Cath o lic Schools, there are still Cath o lic dual lan guage schools oper at ing out side of sup port net works. If not already connected, schools would ben e fit from join ing a national or local net work-or forming their own regional/local com mu nity of sup port. Schools can also ben e fit from connecting with bilin gual orga ni za tions out side of Cath o lic edu ca tion, at both national (e.g., NABE, La Cosecha) and regional lev els (e.g., the Multistate Association for Bilingual Education [MABE], New England; the California Association for Bilingual Education [CABE]).

Recommendation 2: Create Pathways for Bilingual Teacher Recruitment and Retention
School lead ers reported that recruit ment and reten tion of high-qual ity bilin gual teach ers is a major con cern for the sus tain abil ity of dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools, which, as discussed, remains a chal lenge for dual lan guage pro grams in the pub lic sec tor as well (Torre Gibney et al., 2021). To address the national bilin gual teacher short age, sev eral insti tu tions of higher edu ca tion have launched ini tia tives to grow the bilin gual teacher work force, such as the Portland State University's Bilingual Teacher Pathways pro gram, which recruits and trains bilingual indi vid u als to become licensed teach ers. However, at pres ent, there are few bilin gual licen sure pro grams spe cifi cally designed for Cath o lic edu ca tors, despite the fact that many Cath o lic insti tutions of higher edu ca tion have teacher prep a ra tion pro grams. Further devel op ing these cer ti fi ca tion pro grams is an impor tant step in nur tur ing Cath o lic dual lan guage edu ca tion.
Creating path ways for Cath o lic bilin gual edu ca tors may also help to increase the num ber of Latinx edu ca tors in Cath o lic schools more broadly. In their national sur vey of His panic edu ca tors and lead ers, Hoffsman and Wyttenbach (2022) found that 76% of His panic edu ca tors in Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams "always" or "often" felt that the Cath o lic tra di tions embraced at their school reflected their own cul tural back ground, com pared to just 52% of His panic Cath o lic school edu ca tors in non-dual-lan guage set tings. Based on this find ing, Hoffsman and Wyttenbach pro pose that cul tur ally and lin guis ti cally affirming school envi ron ments, such as dual lan guage pro grams, may induce more Latinx lead ers and teach ers to enter and remain in Cath o lic schools, although more research is needed to iden tify the spe cific insti tu tional char ac ter is tics that shape their reten tion and sat is fac tion. Addressing sal ary disparities between the Cath o lic and pub lic edu ca tion sec tor also remains a par a mount con cern, as sal ary and ben e fits is the pre dom inant rea son why His panic Cath o lic school edu ca tors con sider leav ing their schools (Hoffsman & Wyttenbach, 2022).

Recommendation 3: Develop Shared Cath o lic Dual Language Program Evaluation Tool
Program eval u a tion is a key com po nent of effec tive dual lan guage pro gram design and implementation (Howard et al., 2018), yet, to date, there is no shared eval u a tive tool used across Cath o lic schools with dual lan guage pro grams. Survey results made clear that there is no "one-size-fits-all " model for dual lan guage pro grams in Cath o lic schools, as pro grams diff ered signifi cantly in their struc ture (strand vs. whole-school), lan guage allo ca tion model (90/10 or 50/50), and choice of cur ric ula and assess ments, among other char ac ter is tics. It is unlikely that Cath o lic schools would (or should) adopt the same model of dual lan guage edu ca tion, espe cially given each school's unique con text and stu dent pop u la tion. Still, given their shared com mit ment to the Cath o lic faith and adher ence to the tenets of dual lan guage edu ca tion, the devel op ment of a framework spe cific to Cath o lic dual lan guage edu ca tion could help to grow, eval u ate, and strengthen pro grams in schools across the coun try. Since many schools are already using The Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education (Howard et al., 2018) as a resource, a frame work could be devel oped that builds upon and extends the strands within the guid ing prin ci ples, includ ing areas of pro gram devel op ment unique to Cath o lic edu ca tion (e.g., faith for ma tion, role of pas tors, etc.). In addi tion to serv ing as an indi vid ual for ma tive assess ment, a shared frame work would also facil i tate cross-school com par i sons, help ing to strengthen the field of Cath o lic dual lan guage edu ca tion, more broadly.

Recommendation 4: (Re)cen ter Sociocultural Competence for all Stakeholders
Sociocultural com pe tence has been called the "for got ten goal" (Nora, 2012) of dual lan guage edu ca tion and con tin ues to be under rep re sented in research on dual lan guage pro grams (Feinauer & Howard, 2014). Results from this sur vey con firmed that in Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams, as in the pub lic sec tor, socio cul tural com pe tence is an area where school lead ers feel their pro grams are less suc cess ful. Given that less than one-third of lead ers reported high suc cess in this area for stu dents, fac ulty/staff, or par ents, (re)cen ter ing socio cul tural com pe tence for all stake hold ers is an impor tant and wor thy focus for dual lan guage Cath o lic schools. Professional devel op ment could tar get this area, and spe cific mea sures of suc cess could be devel oped to pro vide guid ance to Catho lic dual lan guage schools on what it looks like to achieve socio cul tural/intercultural com pe tence for diverse stake hold ers. A renewed focus on this area would likely also con trib ute to pro duc tive pro gram matic dis cus sions regard ing equity in dual lan guage edu ca tion and sup port the (re)cen tering of the needs and strengths of minoritized stu dents in dual lan guage pro grams.

Recommendation 5: Ensure Systematic and Open-Access Resource Sharing
Considering that 85% of lead ers iden ti fied find ing high-qual ity cur ric u lar resources as a high or mod er ate need, it is clear that Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams would ben e fit from a sys tematic, open-access plat form to sup port resource shar ing across schools. Obtaining resources in the non-English part ner lan guage was cited as a par tic u lar chal lenge, often resulting in teach ers of the non-English part ner lan guage being tasked with cre at ing their own instruc tional resources or trans lat ing mate ri als pro vided only in English. This time-con sum ing and typ i cally uncom pen sated addi tional labor threat ens the sus tain abil ity of Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams and lim its their abil ity to pro vide high-qual ity instruc tion in the non-English part ner lan guage. Current prac tices of resource-shar ing among Cath o lic dual lan guage pro grams are often con fined to par tic u lar net works, of which schools must be a mem ber to par tic i pate. Creating open-access resources com prised of teacher-gen er ated and -adapted mate ri als, par tic u larly in the non-English part ner lan guages, would help ease the bur den that too often falls on minoritized teach ers and would help ensure high-qual ity instruc tion in the non-English lan guage for all stu dents in dual lan guage Cath o lic schools.

Conclusion
The prom ise of dual lan guage edu ca tion to enhance Cath o lic school ing and to enrich educa tional oppor tu ni ties for Latinx stu dents is already being born out in Cath o lic schools across the coun try, with much poten tial for future growth. As we have discussed in this arti cle, there are numer ous ben e fits of dual lan guage pro grams and sig nifi cant align ment between the goals of these pro grams and the mis sion of the Cath o lic Church. Leaders report sig nifi cant successes from their dual lan guage pro grams, espe cially in terms of stu dents' bilin gual devel op ment and aca demic achieve ment. While there are still many areas for growth, it is prom is ing to see the affordances already manifesting within dual lan guage Cath o lic schools. U.S. Cath o lic schools have his tor i cally led the way in offer ing bilin gual edu ca tion to immi grant com mu ni ties, and it is our hope that more Cath o lic schools around the nation might answer the call to meet the needs of mar gin al ized pop u la tions through dual lan guage edu ca tion.

IV. Curriculum and Assessment
a. Have you used Guiding Principles of Dual Language Education (Center for Applied Linguistics) to design or eval u ate your pro gram? b. What cur ric ula do you use for Span ish lan guage arts? c. What cur ric ula do you use for math? d. What assess ments are you using to mea sure aca demic achieve ment (in any lan guage)?
V. Areas of Success a. Please rate your pro gram's suc cess in the fol low ing categories.